Estimated Reading Time: 15 minutes
World History is full of such scenarios- from World War I through Bombing of Nagasaki to Cuban Missile Crisis; we can end up asking What if? In the same category would fall the story narrated in one book which I accidentally came across while trying to quench my need for bibliosmia just a few days ago. A tale about how events causing loss of the British empire in one continent led to the firm establishment of another 10000 km away & formed the root of current Indo-Nepal border dispute
It is a tale of an astounding man who lived a singularly remarkable life, and was as much an Indian as a British er… Irish or American, Dutch, well…you’ll understand as you read more.
In the American theatre of the War of the Austrian Succession, which could well lay its claim to be the real First world war for its truly global extent from India to America, there was a British regiment known as 16th Foot; which took part in War of Jenkins' Ear and was posted Florida from around 1767, with a brief interlude in New York. The unit had a major by the name of Valentine Gardner, who was the the elder brother of Admiral Alan Gardner I, considered by some as the most dashing naval captain in the Georgian era, who ended up an MP of Plymouth and Baron of Uttoxeter.
While in New York, Valentine, having wed a Dutch aristocrat's daughter- Alida Livingston was living a plush life in Livingston Manor by the Hudson River when the revolution broke out. He had narrowly escaped being party to the Boston massacre in 1770 due to the birth of his son- William Linnaeus Gardner.
Despite being a “Loyalist”, Gardner decided that his son was to be reared at the relative safety of his maternal grandpa's colonist home. He felt that the Colonist stronghold wouldn't get breached, and besides this was no New England. And he was proven right when even in 1776, no action took place around Livingston manor.
He himself left his family to serve for his country and kept a memoir. In one of its entry, Battle at Trenton, NJ (he possibly got the place name wrong- it was Princeton) - the name of General Charles Cornwallis, a name to reappear in this storytime and again, is mentioned as the commander.
Come 1777, 16th foot was called to service initially in New York to go up the Hudson valley under command of Lord Howe and catch Washington in a pincer movement, with British troops under General Burgoyne coming down from Quebec. It was a "Divide and Conquer" strategy which aimed not only to isolate New England from the other American colonies but achieve command of the Hudson River and demoralize Americans and their would-be allies, such as the French
The plan failed - Howe decided to capture Philadelphia instead, & set in motion dominos, some of which are still falling till today in India. Without crucial support, Burgoyne lost to Washington at Saratoga, a watershed moment in the American War of Independence as it led to the Franco-American alliance.
The direct effect of Howe’s decision in our story was British shifting their focus at saving the southern states dominion. Cornwallis with 8000 men, including the 16th Foot, and Major Valentine after an initial success in Charleston & Camden, barged into Virginia; only to suffer the surrender at Yorktown, thanks to the strength of French navy. In 1781, an 11-year-old William learned that his father, serving under "the old friend" Cornwallis was captured on October 19. In his memoirs, he wrote "my father had become particularly hated by Americans & would have been put to death, but for my mother’s interests”.
Valentine, saved by his wife, was shunned by his in-laws in the now polarized and "Free" New York. He accepted the inevitable and in 1784, along with the last of the leaving British, arrived in England. William Linnaeus Gardener was sent almost immediately to France, to learn French ways and horse riding; which was to prove the third crucial link in this saga.
While all this was going on in Western hemisphere, a tiny piece of the landlocked area in The Himalayas was undergoing a seismic power shift of its own. The political upheaval in that area was to play a crucial role in cementing the British in India for next 130 years.
The valley between Nalakankar & Mahabharata ranges had been ruled by the migrant Hindu Malla Rajputs since 1200. In the 1770s, it was partitioned among 3 Hindu Malla Rajas of Kathmandu, Lalita-Patan, and Bhaktapur. To the north of Nepal valley lay the state of Gurkhas.
In 1769, when Alida was expecting William; the Gurkha raja Prithvi Narayan Shah overran the Hindu kings, despite latter being supported by the East India Company (The latter had sent an expedition under Captain Kinloch to the aid of Malla kings, who suffered a defeat at Pauwa Gadhi near Hariharpur on 25 Aug 1767). The unified Kingdom of Nepal came into being on the night of 25th Nov 1769.
This was also the time of Maratha resurrection in North India under Mahad ji Shinde, who was eyeing the coveted throne of Delhi. In 1771, Prithvi Narayan Shah died; and a year later Shah Alam returned to Delhi throne from Allahabad under the tutelage of Marathas.
During 1770- late 1780s, while British were engaged in the power struggle with Marathas, eventually culminating with the restoration of the status quo through 1782 Treaty of Salbai; Gurkhas consolidated their power in Nepal under Rana Bahadur- grandson of Prithvi Shah.
It was about this time that, William Gardner, like many other adventurous youths in England, was attracted to service in India, a fabled land, rich in opportunity for the rigorous & the bold. A recommendation of his father to Lord Cornwallis, now Governer General in India, & one hot sunny morning in 1790, he ended up ashore in India, a land which was to become his home and where he wer to die some 45 years later.
He was a part of the 74th Highlanders, and was almost immediately asked to join the forces fighting against Tipu Sultan. His troop was invested but actually did not take Seringapatnam in 1792.
In the same year 1790, the Gurkha armies were sent into Kumaon and Almora came under Nepalese rule. The leading spirit of Kumaon at that time Harak Dev Joshi, is said to thrown in the towel at the first instance and supported Gurkha’s invasion of Garhwal.
In the American theatre of the War of the Austrian Succession, which could well lay its claim to be the real First world war for its truly global extent from India to America, there was a British regiment known as 16th Foot; which took part in War of Jenkins' Ear and was posted Florida from around 1767, with a brief interlude in New York. The unit had a major by the name of Valentine Gardner, who was the the elder brother of Admiral Alan Gardner I, considered by some as the most dashing naval captain in the Georgian era, who ended up an MP of Plymouth and Baron of Uttoxeter.
While in New York, Valentine, having wed a Dutch aristocrat's daughter- Alida Livingston was living a plush life in Livingston Manor by the Hudson River when the revolution broke out. He had narrowly escaped being party to the Boston massacre in 1770 due to the birth of his son- William Linnaeus Gardner.
Despite being a “Loyalist”, Gardner decided that his son was to be reared at the relative safety of his maternal grandpa's colonist home. He felt that the Colonist stronghold wouldn't get breached, and besides this was no New England. And he was proven right when even in 1776, no action took place around Livingston manor.
He himself left his family to serve for his country and kept a memoir. In one of its entry, Battle at Trenton, NJ (he possibly got the place name wrong- it was Princeton) - the name of General Charles Cornwallis, a name to reappear in this storytime and again, is mentioned as the commander.
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| Washington's Charge at Princeton- 3rd Jan 1777 Source: History.com |
The plan failed - Howe decided to capture Philadelphia instead, & set in motion dominos, some of which are still falling till today in India. Without crucial support, Burgoyne lost to Washington at Saratoga, a watershed moment in the American War of Independence as it led to the Franco-American alliance.
The direct effect of Howe’s decision in our story was British shifting their focus at saving the southern states dominion. Cornwallis with 8000 men, including the 16th Foot, and Major Valentine after an initial success in Charleston & Camden, barged into Virginia; only to suffer the surrender at Yorktown, thanks to the strength of French navy. In 1781, an 11-year-old William learned that his father, serving under "the old friend" Cornwallis was captured on October 19. In his memoirs, he wrote "my father had become particularly hated by Americans & would have been put to death, but for my mother’s interests”.
Valentine, saved by his wife, was shunned by his in-laws in the now polarized and "Free" New York. He accepted the inevitable and in 1784, along with the last of the leaving British, arrived in England. William Linnaeus Gardener was sent almost immediately to France, to learn French ways and horse riding; which was to prove the third crucial link in this saga.
While all this was going on in Western hemisphere, a tiny piece of the landlocked area in The Himalayas was undergoing a seismic power shift of its own. The political upheaval in that area was to play a crucial role in cementing the British in India for next 130 years.
The valley between Nalakankar & Mahabharata ranges had been ruled by the migrant Hindu Malla Rajputs since 1200. In the 1770s, it was partitioned among 3 Hindu Malla Rajas of Kathmandu, Lalita-Patan, and Bhaktapur. To the north of Nepal valley lay the state of Gurkhas.
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| Extent of Gurkha State in mid 18th Century Source: Invasion of Nepal |
In 1769, when Alida was expecting William; the Gurkha raja Prithvi Narayan Shah overran the Hindu kings, despite latter being supported by the East India Company (The latter had sent an expedition under Captain Kinloch to the aid of Malla kings, who suffered a defeat at Pauwa Gadhi near Hariharpur on 25 Aug 1767). The unified Kingdom of Nepal came into being on the night of 25th Nov 1769.
This was also the time of Maratha resurrection in North India under Mahad ji Shinde, who was eyeing the coveted throne of Delhi. In 1771, Prithvi Narayan Shah died; and a year later Shah Alam returned to Delhi throne from Allahabad under the tutelage of Marathas.
During 1770- late 1780s, while British were engaged in the power struggle with Marathas, eventually culminating with the restoration of the status quo through 1782 Treaty of Salbai; Gurkhas consolidated their power in Nepal under Rana Bahadur- grandson of Prithvi Shah.
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| India and Nepal in 1795 Source: Wikipedia |
He was a part of the 74th Highlanders, and was almost immediately asked to join the forces fighting against Tipu Sultan. His troop was invested but actually did not take Seringapatnam in 1792.
In the same year 1790, the Gurkha armies were sent into Kumaon and Almora came under Nepalese rule. The leading spirit of Kumaon at that time Harak Dev Joshi, is said to thrown in the towel at the first instance and supported Gurkha’s invasion of Garhwal.
However Gurkha armies had to be recalled in Nepal due to a Chinese invasion of Nepal, which itself was in retaliation of Nepalese attack on Tibet; when Dalai lama called for help from Qing emperor. Imagine -Tibet successfully seeking help from China for its autonomy, against Nepal!
By 1812-13, the territories of British and their protectorates in India had taken a shape of big question mark with Ceded and Conquered Provinces, Oudh, Bihar & Bengal forming a hook. Just north of it, Gurkha kingdom ran from Tista to Sutlej – a territory of the size of Britain, which was most inaccessible, and unified for the first time in history. To the northwest of this hook, straddling Sutlej in Punjab lay the Sikh Empire of Ranjit Singh seething with anguish for his compromise at 1809 Treat of Amritsar with the Brits. In the Southwest, Marathas under Holkers were sufficiently strong to seek revenge.
The British plan was to attack the Gurkhas through 4 divisions, - The first division was to attack the Western end, under Major Gen Ochterlony. The second, under Major General Gillespie was to attack Garhwal while others were to follow on the eastern flanks of the hook.
Gardner’s Horses would go on to help other British regiments win at Palpa and then Anglo-Nepal war by the end of the same year. The British had managed to not only extend their territory from Brahmaputra to Satluj, they had also effectively solidified their aura by turning the tide in the way they executed the Kumaon campaign.
As in the case of so many rivers worldwide, Kali’s drainage basin consists of multiple tributaries/ streams, originating in the glaciers. It's basically a matter of figuring out which tributary of Kali is the "original" Kali and that's where the two countries' claims differ. What makes the situation particularly interesting in Kali’s case is the fact that the two different tributaries, claimed as the original Kali – seem to be equally long and thus the “furthest point of continuous flow in drainage basin” concept used for identification of true river source (as in case of the Nile, Amazon or Thames) fails to rescue the situation.
The situation is further complicated by the fact that NO proper survey of this arduous area was done until very late; and the maps published during 1818- 1900 vary in their representation of the boundaries.
Given how complicated and vacillating the geopolitics of this region has been, along with the remoteness of the terrain, an American born, descendent of an Irishman and a Dutch woman Gardner surely couldn’t have imagined the consequences of his words for Indians and Nepalese 200 years ago. And yet, one can only imagine – What if General Howe hadn’t made that decision to charge Philadephia!
Epilogue
Gardner died at Kasganj on 29 July 1835, aged 65. His Begum died a month after him His tomb, and that of his Begum and his son James, still stand in Kasganj today. His descendants still live there, rightfully claiming to be Lord Gardner of Uttoxeter.
Gardner's true lasting legacy- his Horses- have gone on to become the most highly decorated armoured regiment of the Indian Army - 2nd Lancers. They have been involved in the Battle of the Somme (WW-I), Battle of Gazala (WW-II), Battle of Phillora (1965) war.
It gave us the second commander in chief of Indian Army in General Maharaj Rajendra Shinji in 1953; and was the first in the military to receive the Vijayanta main battle tanks, the first indigenously built Indian tanks.
Once the Chinese matter had been resolved, in 1792 (with Gurkhas agreeing to paying a 5 yearly tribute to the Qings), Gurkhas resumed their aggressive annexations for next decade or two, with their commander Amar Singh Thapa annexing Garhwal in 1804, and an area upto Kangra in Himachal from Hindu King Sansar Chand in 1806, only to stop at doorsteps of Ranjit Singh’s Sikh empire
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| India in 1805, with Nepal till Sutlej Source: Wikipedia |
.The root of the success of Gurkhas lay in their well-disciplined army - an exclusively infantry force that actually mimicked EIC’s Bengal army in its structure, down to the ranks as well as routines. This was primarily owing to British deserters Byrnes and Bell; who took refuge with Gurkha raja and ran a military school in Kathmandu.
Maintaining this army needed funding, and with the treasury anyways forced to pay tributes to China, Gurkhas had to seek other avenues of earnings. The solution lay in further taxation of the annexed territories and expansion into the fertile Terai region to the south.
Kumaon and Garhwal faced the brunt of Gorkha wrath. The rule of Gurkhas was oppressive to the extreme - very heavy taxes were imposed, and thousands of Kumaonis killed for a pittance. Repeated massacres of hundreds of villagers for a single day's delay in payment of taxes became common. Kumaonis and Garhwalis were sold as slaves in markets of Haridwar for sums as low as Rs 10. According to some, more than 30000 were sold in 1811-12 itself. No wonder this period from 1804 to 1815 is called Gurkhayani in Garhwal- a term meaning massacre.
Concurrently, by 1804, the Marathas, mainly controlled by 3 chiefs- Scindias, Holkars and Bhonsles, had suffered losses in the 2nd Anglo-Maratha war with British seizing control of Delhi (& titular Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, later replaced by Akbar Shah II) and lands between Ganga & Yamuna.
It might be of interest that Maratha campaign was actually looked down upon in England, and while the British didn’t return any of the “Ceded and Conquered Provinces”, they replaced Wellesley with good old Cornwallis as Governor General in 1805, to curb the expansionist activity. However, Cornwallis was to die the same year, to be replaced by Lord Minto.
Meanwhile our lad William resigned from company army, found a wife in the daughter of Nawab of Cambay Meh Munzel ul Nissa, became a mercenary for Jaswant Rao Holkar, & then for Maharaja of Jaipur.
Since his arrival in India, he had led an extraordinary life of multiple military battles across India and unbelievable escapes from death, gained a reputation of being a capable commander and proven an outstanding cavalryman; a trait borne out of those days spent in France.
Thanks to the clout of his wife- an adopted daughter of Mughal emperor Akbar Shah II, in 1805 he landed an estate at Kaasgunj, a rare feat in the sense that at that time no person of British blood was allowed to own land in India. The restriction also applied to those born in India.
In next 4 years, William recruited local men in nearby Farrukhabad and Mainpuri and managed to inspire them to get trained for combat while developing a spirit of brotherhood and regimental loyalty, so that 600 men would fight as one. This regiment was to be called Gardner’s Horse.
The British had employed these men for policing and revenue collection in the newly annexed Doab and Rohilkhand region i.e. civil duties, while William was wishing to see some action, which he’d soon get, thanks to a visit of Lord Moira (Hastings), Governor-General of India.
Maintaining this army needed funding, and with the treasury anyways forced to pay tributes to China, Gurkhas had to seek other avenues of earnings. The solution lay in further taxation of the annexed territories and expansion into the fertile Terai region to the south.
Kumaon and Garhwal faced the brunt of Gorkha wrath. The rule of Gurkhas was oppressive to the extreme - very heavy taxes were imposed, and thousands of Kumaonis killed for a pittance. Repeated massacres of hundreds of villagers for a single day's delay in payment of taxes became common. Kumaonis and Garhwalis were sold as slaves in markets of Haridwar for sums as low as Rs 10. According to some, more than 30000 were sold in 1811-12 itself. No wonder this period from 1804 to 1815 is called Gurkhayani in Garhwal- a term meaning massacre.
It might be of interest that Maratha campaign was actually looked down upon in England, and while the British didn’t return any of the “Ceded and Conquered Provinces”, they replaced Wellesley with good old Cornwallis as Governor General in 1805, to curb the expansionist activity. However, Cornwallis was to die the same year, to be replaced by Lord Minto.
Meanwhile our lad William resigned from company army, found a wife in the daughter of Nawab of Cambay Meh Munzel ul Nissa, became a mercenary for Jaswant Rao Holkar, & then for Maharaja of Jaipur.
Since his arrival in India, he had led an extraordinary life of multiple military battles across India and unbelievable escapes from death, gained a reputation of being a capable commander and proven an outstanding cavalryman; a trait borne out of those days spent in France.
Thanks to the clout of his wife- an adopted daughter of Mughal emperor Akbar Shah II, in 1805 he landed an estate at Kaasgunj, a rare feat in the sense that at that time no person of British blood was allowed to own land in India. The restriction also applied to those born in India.
In next 4 years, William recruited local men in nearby Farrukhabad and Mainpuri and managed to inspire them to get trained for combat while developing a spirit of brotherhood and regimental loyalty, so that 600 men would fight as one. This regiment was to be called Gardner’s Horse.
The British had employed these men for policing and revenue collection in the newly annexed Doab and Rohilkhand region i.e. civil duties, while William was wishing to see some action, which he’d soon get, thanks to a visit of Lord Moira (Hastings), Governor-General of India.
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| British "Questionmark" territories in 1810 |
It is difficult to estimate the justification of Hastings’ fears of a Pan-Indian alliance, but it was indeed true that Peshva of Poona had sent emissaries to Gurkhas in December 1813. Hastings felt it was easier to defeat the Gurkhas in isolation BEFORE the alliance could form.
So in April 1814, at the pretext of retaliating the murder of a company tax collector in Butwal, within the state of Palpa near Gorakhpur; Hastings waged the Anglo Nepal war. After the initial skirmishes, with both sides exchanging control of 22 odd villages in terain, the proper attack began post-monsoon- in October 1814.
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| Indo-Nepal boundary with Palpa - April 1814 |
The first attack came at the small fort of Kalanga by the Second division & was easily repelled, with Gillespie losing his life. The third division with 12000 men lost the Battle of Makwanpur Gadhi to just 4000 Gurkhas, while the last division under Major Gen Wood lost at JItgadh. The plan was very quickly unraveling. Sikh & Maratha were ready to pounce at the first sight of failure in Kumaon and Hastings was desperate. However, one man was about to change the tide and with it, the history and geography of two countries.
An operation was commended with a body of irregulars under the command of William Gardner, who had been asked by Hastings himself to join Ochterlony. It was his campaign and the subsequent Battle of Almorah which was to produce highly important consequences.
On 15th Feb 1815, just as Napolean was giving final touches to his escape from Elba, Gardner entered Kumaon along Kosila river with his band of mainly Rohilla Muslim cavalrymen. By 18th, a strategic fort of Kathikana perched atop a high rock was won by 500 of the Horses.
Then in a series of outstanding military manoeuvres for the time of the year (chilling February evenings), highly skilled navigation, audacious mountain climbing, and support from Col Nicolls, he ended up blockading Almorah by 28th March.
With numerous skirmishes in that duration, the siege lasted till 26th April, when William Gardner finally met the Gurkha commander of Kumaon to discuss the terms of the latter’s surrender. By 30th April, the Nepalese had left Almorah and the course of the war had changed completely.
An operation was commended with a body of irregulars under the command of William Gardner, who had been asked by Hastings himself to join Ochterlony. It was his campaign and the subsequent Battle of Almorah which was to produce highly important consequences.
On 15th Feb 1815, just as Napolean was giving final touches to his escape from Elba, Gardner entered Kumaon along Kosila river with his band of mainly Rohilla Muslim cavalrymen. By 18th, a strategic fort of Kathikana perched atop a high rock was won by 500 of the Horses.
Then in a series of outstanding military manoeuvres for the time of the year (chilling February evenings), highly skilled navigation, audacious mountain climbing, and support from Col Nicolls, he ended up blockading Almorah by 28th March.
With numerous skirmishes in that duration, the siege lasted till 26th April, when William Gardner finally met the Gurkha commander of Kumaon to discuss the terms of the latter’s surrender. By 30th April, the Nepalese had left Almorah and the course of the war had changed completely.
Gardner’s Horses would go on to help other British regiments win at Palpa and then Anglo-Nepal war by the end of the same year. The British had managed to not only extend their territory from Brahmaputra to Satluj, they had also effectively solidified their aura by turning the tide in the way they executed the Kumaon campaign.
The significance of Kumaon win can be ascertained from the fact that the chief commander of the First division Ochterlony became a legend by the end of the battle. British parliament fomally thanked him, and he was made a Baron, among the very few EIC officials to get that title. His name was a household name in Nepal until the rise of communists, and even in India he is well known in the military folklore , with an Ochterlony column erected in his name, very similar to Nelson's column in London.
With a number of Nepali soldiers leaving Gurkha army and joining the 2nd Nasiri Batallion of the British army, any hint of Sikhs and Maratha challenge dissipated and the company was able to consolidate its hold, with great financial success for next 30 years- until the First Anglo-Sikh war. British rule in whole of India had effectively begun.
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| Memorandum of Thanks from British Parliament to Ochterlony, 1817 |
The Treaty of Sugauli, in parts, had the very same terms that Gardner had dictated to Bam Shah in Almorah 8 months ago. These terms would go on to decide the border of two countries 130 years later.
The current day Indo-Nepal border disputes
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| Actual Text- Treaty of Sugaulu Document 1816 |
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| Changing course of River Gandak over 200 years |
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| 2 tributaries of Kali - the "source" of dispute |
Given the terms just locked the borders based on River banks, it inherently meant that the boundaries were going to be “fluid”- as rivers are bound to meander, change course, split, dry out – one part of the present Indo-Nepal boundary dispute being exactly that.
During each heavy flood – 1845, 1954, 1972, 1980 and 1989 – the Gandak changed its course. And in this process, Susta , which was initially on the right bank of Gandak in 1816 has moved to the left bank and hence in India.
The other major bone of contention, which has made news recently - the Kalapani and Lipulekh dispute can be attributed directly to the words used by William Gardner that fateful night of 30 April 1816- which formed Article 5 of the treaty. His use of the setting of Kali river has been enshrined in the treaty, but what Gardner did not explicitly call out where the extant of Kali was considered.
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| The setting of Kali as the border of British Kumaon and Nepal in the treaty |
As in the case of so many rivers worldwide, Kali’s drainage basin consists of multiple tributaries/ streams, originating in the glaciers. It's basically a matter of figuring out which tributary of Kali is the "original" Kali and that's where the two countries' claims differ. What makes the situation particularly interesting in Kali’s case is the fact that the two different tributaries, claimed as the original Kali – seem to be equally long and thus the “furthest point of continuous flow in drainage basin” concept used for identification of true river source (as in case of the Nile, Amazon or Thames) fails to rescue the situation.
The situation is further complicated by the fact that NO proper survey of this arduous area was done until very late; and the maps published during 1818- 1900 vary in their representation of the boundaries.
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| British Survey of India in 1856 showing Kalapani and Lipulekh in India |
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| First known Indo-Nepal borderMap published after the 1816 treaty -A. Arrowsmiths, 1818 Source: Library of Congress |
Given how complicated and vacillating the geopolitics of this region has been, along with the remoteness of the terrain, an American born, descendent of an Irishman and a Dutch woman Gardner surely couldn’t have imagined the consequences of his words for Indians and Nepalese 200 years ago. And yet, one can only imagine – What if General Howe hadn’t made that decision to charge Philadephia!
Epilogue
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| Julian James Gardner, in Kasgunj, 2018 |
Gardner died at Kasganj on 29 July 1835, aged 65. His Begum died a month after him His tomb, and that of his Begum and his son James, still stand in Kasganj today. His descendants still live there, rightfully claiming to be Lord Gardner of Uttoxeter.
Gardner's true lasting legacy- his Horses- have gone on to become the most highly decorated armoured regiment of the Indian Army - 2nd Lancers. They have been involved in the Battle of the Somme (WW-I), Battle of Gazala (WW-II), Battle of Phillora (1965) war.
It gave us the second commander in chief of Indian Army in General Maharaj Rajendra Shinji in 1953; and was the first in the military to receive the Vijayanta main battle tanks, the first indigenously built Indian tanks.
Sources for this story:- 1. Gardner of Gardner's Horse, 2nd Lancers, Indian Army : Narindar Saroop, 1983
2. The invasion of Nepal: John Company at war 1814-1816: John Pemble, 1968
3. The History of British India, Volume 8: James Mill, 1848
4. https://medium.com/@neddonovan1/uttoxeter-sahib-a0e25432b9ef
2. The invasion of Nepal: John Company at war 1814-1816: John Pemble, 1968
3. The History of British India, Volume 8: James Mill, 1848
4. https://medium.com/@neddonovan1/uttoxeter-sahib-a0e25432b9ef
